Some units from Murphy¶

Unit 3. Past simple and present perfect.¶

Usually we use past simple in since clause and present perfect in the main clause:

Since Mr Dodson became president unemployment has increased.

But we use the present perfect in the since clause if the two situations described in the two clauses extent until the present:

Have you met any of your neighbours since you have lived here?

With time clauses introduced by after, when, until, as soon as, once, by the time, the minute/second/moment

the past simple refers to past, completed events
the present perfect refers to future events

compare:

After she left hospital (past), she had a long holiday. or, what is more usual: After she had left hospital, she had a long holiday.
After she has left school (future), she will be spending six months in India. or, what is more usual: After she leaves school, she will be spending six month in India.
The minute I got the news about Anna (past) I telephoned my parents.
I will contact you the minute I have got my exam results (future).
It will not be the first time she has voted against the government (future event).

Unit 11. Future continuous and future perfect continuous¶

Use the future continuous to talk about:

something that is predicted to start before a particular point of future time and that may continue after this point (often the result of a previous decision or arrangement):
- When it goes into orbit, the spacecraft will be carrying 30 kilos of plutonium.
- Anna will be helping us to organise the party.
a future activity that is part of the normal course of events or that is one of a repeated or regular series of events:
- Dr Lin will be giving the same talk in room 103 at ten next Thursday.
- Will you be driving to work, as usual?
when we do not want to indicate willingness, intention, invitation, etc, we prefer to use the future continuous instead of will. For example, if guests have stayed longer than you wanted, and you do not know when they are leaving, you might ask:
- Will you be staying with us again tonight? (asking about their plans) rather than
- Will you stay with us again tonight? (they might think this is an invitation).
The Future Continuous also can be used (as the present continuous) to talk about arranged activities or events in the future:
- We will be leaving (or are leaving) for Istanbul at 7:00 in the evening (timetable).

The Future (Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous) can also be used to say what we believe or imagine is happening around now:

We could ask to borrow Joe’s car. He won’t be using it today — he went to work by bike.
Most people will have forgotten the fire by now.
Tennis fans will have been queuing at Wimbledon all day to buy tickets.

We can use The Future Perfect Continuous to say what we think was happening at a point in the past:

Motorist Vicky Hesketh will have been asking herself whether speed cameras are a good idea after she was fined 100 gbp last week for driving at 33 kmh in 30 kmh zone.

Unit 12. Be to + inf; be about to + inf¶

We often use be to + infinitive in if-clauses to say that something must happen first (in the main clause) before something else can happen (in the if-clause) (in other words, to reverse usual cause&effect order in “if I win, I will retire”):

If the human race is to survive, we must look at environmental problems now.
The law needs to be revised if justice is to be done.

Compare the use of be to + infinitive and the present simple for the future in if-clauses:

If Lopez is to win gold at the next Olympics, he needs to work on his fitness.
If Lopez wins gold at the next Olympics, he has said that he will retire from athletics.

Note how the order of cause and effects in if-sentences is reversed with these two tenses:

If Lopez is to win gold result, effect, he needs to work cause.
If Lopez wins gold cause, he has said that he will retire result, effect.

Unit 13. Other ways of talking about the future¶

Useful expressions:

with all likelihood
is likely to
A global disaster may well have happened
become a thing of the past
the signs are
the days of … may be over
to be…
- due to, bound to, sure to, destined to, on the verge of, on the brink of, on the point of, about to, set to

We use be due to to say that something is expected to happen at a particular time, be sure / be bound to to say that something is likely or certain to happen, and be set to to say that something is ready to happen:

The company’s chief executive is due to retire next year, but following today’s announcement of further losses she is sure to be asked to leave sooner.
Will there be somewhere to get a coffee at the station? Oh, yes, there is bound to be.
Her new film is set to be a great success.

We use the following words to talk about intentions: guarantee, aim, agree, expect, hope, intend, mean, plan, promise, propose, resolve, undertake, want:

We guarantee to refund your money if you are dissatisfied with the computer.
We are looking to create 3000 jobs in the city over the next year.

Unit 14. The future seen from the past¶

Some examples:

Eleni decided that she would stay at home for the summer.
At the time, I though I would be going alone, but then Jan said he wanted to come.
The exam was so easy that most people would have finished after 30 minutes.
It was announced that there was to be a meeting of ministers that evening.
Mrs Novak heard that she was to be moved to a post in a nearby school.

To talk about an activity or event that was in the future at a particular point in the past, we can use

either was/were to + inf — for things that actually happened:
- At the time she was probably the best actor in the theatre company, but in fact some of her colleagues were to become much better known.
- He was to find out years later that the car he had bought was stolen.
or was/were to have + V3 — for things that were expected, but did not happen:
- The boat, which was to have taken them to the island, failed to arrive.

In less format contexts it is more natural to use be supposed to:

I was supposed to help, but I was ill I was to have helped, but I was ill

Unit 15. can, could, be able to and be allowed to¶

To talk about the theoretical possibility of something happening we use could, not can. However, we use can, not could, to say that something is possible and actually happens:

It could be expensive to keep a cat if we had one, it could or it may not be expensive.
It can be expensive to keep a cat it can be, and it sometimes is.

Unit 16. will, would and used to¶

We can use will (for the present) and would (for the past) to talk about:

characteristic behaviour or habits:
- Every day Dan will come home from work and turn on the TV.
- At school she would always sit quietly and pay attention.
things that are or were always true:
- Cold weather will kill certain plants.
- During the war, people would eat all kinds of things that we do not eat now.

We can use will to draw conclusions or state assumptions about things that are the case now:

Martina will be at home by now. Let’s go and see her.
You will know that Ewan and Lucy are engaged (I assume you already know).

There is also alternative rules as to how make questions and negations with used to:

A sentence written in past-habitual tense describes an occurrence that once occurred continuously or repeatedly:

They used to agree with us.
They used to not agree with us.

This formal usage is awkward and seldom used; we are more likely to write, “They used to disagree with us”. An informal version of the sentence, more likely to be used if no direct antonym like disagree is available for a given sentence, is “They didn’t use to agree with us”.
Used they to agree with us?

This formal usage is rare. The informal form, much more common, is, “Did they use to agree with us?”.

would / will have V3:

To talk about an unreal past situation — that is, an imaginary situation or a situation that might have happened in the past, but did not — we use would have V3:

I would have been happy to see him, but I did not have time.

However, to say that we think a past situation actually happened, we use will have V3:

As it was cloudy, few people will have seen last night’s lunar eclipse. rather than would have seen.

Unit 17. may and might¶

We use may/might + have V3 and may/might + be + Ving to talk about possible events in the past, present and future:

Do you think Laura may/might have completed the report by now? past
His maths may/might have improved by the time the exam comes round future
Marco is not in his office. He may/might be working at home today. present
When I go to Vienna I may/might be staying with Max, but I am not sure yet. future

We can use may/might have been + Ving to talk about possible situations or activities that went on over a period of past time:

Callum did not know where the ball was, but he thought his sister might have been playing with it before she left for school.

Unit 18. must and have to¶

We use must and must not in formal rules and regulations and in warnings:

Bookings must be made at least seven days before departure.
The government must not be allowed to appoint judges.

In spoken English we often use must and mustn’t to propose a future arrangement, such as a meeting or social event, without making detailed plans:

We must get together more often.
We mustn’t leave it so long next time.

We can also use I must … to remind ourselves to do something:

I must charge my phone. I meant to do it yesterday, but I forgot.

To draw a conclusion about…

something that happened in the past we use must have V3:
- That is not Clara’s car. She must have borrowed it from her parents.
something happening at or around the time of speaking we use must be Ving:
- I cannot hear a noise. You must be imagining things.
something that is likely to happen in the future we use must be going to or must be Ving:
- What are all those workmen doing? I think they must be going to dig up the road.
- I was wrong about the meeting being today. It must be happening next Friday.
a present situation we use must be:
- Their goalkeeper must be at least two metres tall!

We can use must have to to say that we conclude something based on what we know about a present situation and must have had to to conclude something about a past situation:

I cannot access the database. You must have to put in a password. a password is necessary
Matt was not at home when I went round. He must have had to go out unexpectedly.

We use have to in questions that imply a criticism. Must can also be used, although some people think this is rather old-fashioned. We usually stress have and must in sentences like this:

Must you play your trumpet here? It is deafening!

Unit 21. Linking verbs: be, appear, seem, become, get¶

After the verbs come, get, and grow we can use a to-inf. Come and grow are often used to talk about gradual change:

I eventually came / grew to appreciate his work.

Unit 27. Negative questions; echo question; questions with that-clauses¶

In formal contexts, or when we want to give some special emphasis to the negative (perhaps to show that we are angry, very surprised, or to strongly persuade someone), we can use not after the subject in negative questions:

Did she not realise that she had broken it?
Can you not get there a bit earlier?

We sometimes use negative words other that not such as never, no, nobody, nothing, nowhere:

Why do you never help?
Have you nowhere to go? (or Do you have nowhere to go?)

**Unit 30. Unit 31. Ving and infinitives**¶

See to as preposition on this page.

Some verbs (feel, hear, notice, observe, overhear, see, watch) can be followed by an object and then either by an Ving form or bare inf, but the meanings may be slightly different:

I saw them playing football from my window. (Ving indicates an action in progress) and
I saw him smash the bottle. (bare inf indicates a completed action)
I was able to watch them building the new car park from my office window. (Ving suggests that I watched, but not from start to finish) and
I watched him climb through the window, and then I called the police. (bare inf suggests I watched the whole action from start to finish).

Unit 33. Reporting statements: that-clauses¶

The following reporting verbs (feel, acknowledge, assume, believe, consider, declare, expect, find, presume, report, think, understand) which are followed by a that-clause have an alternative with an object + to-inf (often to be), although the alternatives are often rather formal:

I felt that the results were satisfactory
I felt the results to be satisfactory

After the verbs ask, demand and require we use of:

The club asks of its members that they pay their fees by 31st December.
Informal The club asks its member to pay their fees by 31st December.
The company demands of its staff that they should be at work by 8:30.

Unit 34. Verb + wh-clause¶

In rather format contexts, particularly in writing, we can use as to with a meaning similar to about or concerning before a wh-clause. This is most common before whether:

Opinion was divided as to whether the findings from the study were representative of the population as a whole.

Unit 36. Reporting offers, suggestion, orders, intention, etc¶

Mistake in part A: The object usually refers to the person who -> whom the offer suggestion, etc is made to;

Unit 38. Reporting what people say using nouns and adjectives¶

Noun + wh-clause:

Juan raised the question of when the money would be collected.
Our previous meeting looked at the issue of how to increase income.

After many of the nouns: acknowledgement, advice, allegation, announcement, answer, argument, comment, decision, explanation, forecast, guarantee, indication, observation, promise, recommendation, reply, speculation, statement, suggestion, threat, warning, decision, instruction, order, refusal, explanation, discussion, problem we can use as to + wh-clause or as to + wh-whord + to-inf to introduce the subject of a question or topic discussed or thought about (see also Unit 34). Note that an alternative preposition can usually be used instead of as to:

She asked my advice as to what subject she should study at university or advice on...
There was some discussion as to whether the price included tax or not or discussion of...
There was some disagreement as to whether he was eligible to play for France.

Also: conflict, confusion, debate, discussion, doubt, question, speculation, uncertainty; concerned, indifferent, uncertain, undecided, unsure.
Before we left we gave them strict instruction as to how to cook it or about how to...

**Unit 39. should in that-clauses; the present subjunctive**¶

In formal contexts particularly in written English, we can often leave out should and use only the base form of the verb. This form is the present subjunctive and is used to describe bringing about the situation expressed in the that-clause:

The have proposed that Felix move to their Munich office.
They directed that the building be pulled down.
We advised that the company not raise its prices.

Other verbs used with the present subjunctive: advise, ask, beg, command, demand, insist, instruct, intend, order, prefer, recommend, request, require, stipulate, suggest, urge, warn.

Note: you can still use recommend you to do, but it means that it is you (not he) who is the best candidate for doing something.

We can also use should or sometimes the subjunctive in a that-clause after it be adj:

It is inappropriate that he should receive ~~receives~~ that award again.

Also, instead of inappropriate: advisable, appalling, appropriate, (in-)conceivable, crucial, essential, imperative, important, obligatory, (un-)necessary, urgent, vital.

We can use should in a that-clause when we talk about our own reaction to something we are reporting particularly after be + adj:

I am concerned that she should think I stole the money or ...that she thinks...

Also, instead of concerned: amazed, amused, anxious, astounded, disappointed, shocked, surprised, upset.

If we are talking about an intention or plan, we can often use a subjunctive rather that should:

I have arranged that she come ~~comes~~ to the first part of the meeting. or ...that she should come... or ...for her to come...

Unit 41 & Unit 42. Agreement between subject and verb¶

With any of, each of, either of, neither of or none of and a plural noun we use a singular verb:

Neither of the French athletes has won this year.

With a/the majority of, a number of, a lot of, plenty of, all (of), or some (of) and a plural noun we use a plural verb (however, we use a singular verb with the number of):

A number of refugees have been turned back at the border.
The number of books in the library has risen to over five million.

After one of and a plural noun we use a singular verb. However, after one of + plural noun + who we use a plural verb:

One of the reasons I took the job was that I could work from home.
He is one of those teachers who insist on pupils sitting silently in class.

With any of, none of, the majority of, a lot of, plenty of, all (of), some (of) and an uncountable noun we use a singular verb:

All the furniture was destroyed in the fire.
None of the equipment appears to be damaged.

With every or each and a singular noun or coordinated noun (x and y) we use a singular verb:

Every boy and girl takes part in the activity.
Every room looks over the harbour.

When a subject is made up of two or more items joined by either … or … or neither … nor … we use a singular verb if the last item is singular, and a plural verb if the last item is plural:

Either the station or the cinema is a good place to meet.
The President or his representatives are to attend the meeting.

Although the words data and media (newspaper, television, etc.) are plural (singular datum and medium), they are commonly used with a singular verb. However, in formal contexts such as academic writing a plural verb is preferred. Note that other similar plurals such as criteria and phenomena (singular criterion and phenomenon) are always used with plural verbs.

With a phrase referring to a measurement, amount or quantity we usually prefer a singular verb:

Only three metres separates ~~separate~~ the runners in first and second places.

and a singular verb must be used when the complement is a singular noun phrase (e.g. a long time):

Three hours seems a long time to take on the homework.

When the first noun in a complex subject is a percentage or a fraction the verb agrees with the noun closest to the verb:

An inflation rate of only 2% makes a difference to exports.
About 50% / half of the houses need major repairs.

Unit 45. a/an, the and zero article¶

If we want to describe a particular instance of a concept in general we can use a/an:

I could see the plane high up in the sky <-> When I woke up there was a bright blue sky.
What are your plans for the future. <-> She dreamt of a future where she could spend more time painting.

After the position of, the post of, or the role of we use zero article before a job title:

Dr Simons has taken on the position of Head of Department.

Note that a/an, or sometimes zero article, is used with a name when referring to the particular excellent qualities of the person named:

Majid plays tennis well, but he will never be a Roger Federer.

We also use a/an when we refer to an individual example of a product made by a particular manufacturer (e.g. I have just bought a Mercedes) or a work by a particular artist (e.g. Do you think it could be a Van Gogh / a Rembrandt?).

You can use a/an before a person’s name if you do not know the person yourself:

Dr Lee is here for you I know Dr Lee.
There is a Dr Amy Lee on the phone I have not heard of her before Do you want to tell to her?

Unit 49. no, none (of) and not any¶

In a formal or literary style we can use not a in initial position of after and, but or that (see also Unit 100):

Not a sound came from the room.
She kept so quiet that not a soul in the house knew she was there.

We can give special emphasis to no or none of using phrases like no amount of with uncountable nouns, not one… / not a single… with singular countable nouns, and not one of… with plural nouns:

The company is so badly managed that no amount of investment will make it successful.
Not one person remembered my birthday.
Not one of the families affected by the noise wants to move.

**Unit 50. much (of), many (of), a lot of, lots (of), etc.**¶

In formal contexts, such as academic writing, much (of) and many (of) are often preferred to a lot of, lots of. We can also use phrases such as a large / considerable / substantial amount of (with uncountable nouns), or a large / considerable / great / substantial number of (with plural nouns):

Much debate has been heard about Thornton’s new book.
There could be many explanations for this.
Much of her fiction describes women in unhappy marriages.

In formal contexts we can use much and many as pronouns:

There is no guarantee she will recover. Much depends on how well she responds to treat.
Many have argued that she is the fines poet of our generation.
Not once did I see a tiger in the jungle; although I heard many.

We can use the phrase many a with a singular noun to talk about a repeated event or a large number of people or things:

Many a pupil at the school will be pleased that Latin is no longer compulsory.

To emphasise that we are talking about a large number we can use a good / great many with a plural noun:

She has a good / great many friends in New Zealand.
A good / great deal of the exhibition was devoted to her recent work.

Unit 51. all (of), whole, every, each¶

every and each¶

Often we can use every or each with little difference in meaning. However, we use every:

with almost/virtually/etc + noun to emphasise we are talking about a group as a whole:
- Almost every visitor stopped and stared.
with a plural noun when every is followed by a number:
- I go to the dentist every six months.
with abstract uncountable nouns such as chance, confidence, hope, reason, and sympathy to show a positive attitude to what we are saying. Here every means complete or total:
- She has every chance of success in her application for the job.
in phrases referring to regular or repeated events such as: every other kilometre, every single day, every so often, every few months, and every now and again.

Unit 52. few, little, less, fewer¶

We can use the few and the little followed by a noun to suggest not enough:

It is one of the few shops in the city centre when you can buy food.

Instead of the few / the little we can use what few / little to mean the small number / amount:

She gave what little money she had in her purse to the man.
What few visitors we have are always made welcome.

Unit 58 & Unit 59. Participle clauses with adverbial meaning¶

Opening her eyes, the baby began to cry.
Faced with a bill for 10000, Ivan has taken an extra job.
Looked after carefully, the plant can live through the winter.
Having finished the book, I had a holiday.
Having been hunted close to extinction, the rhino is once again common in this area.

The in -ing clause indicates ‘cause’:

In criticising the painting, I knew I would offend her.
In choosing Marco, the People’s Party has moved to the left.

We can often use by + -ing or in + -ing with a similar meaning, although by + -ing is preferred in informal contexts:

In/By writing about Spanish culture, I came to understand the county better.
- In writing … — the consequence of writing was to understand.
- By writing … — the method I used to understand the country better was to write.

Adverbial meaning can also be added by a clause beginning with a conjunction or adjective but with no verb. This kind of clause has the same meaning as a clause beginning with a conjunction + subject + be and is used in fairly formal English:

While in Poland, they will play two concerts in Warsaw.
Although just two feet apart, they did not speak.
I try to use public transport whenever possible whenever it is possible.
Unhappy with the decision, Johnson swore at the referee.

Unit 69. Participle adjectives and compound adjectives¶

We can use many participle adjectives immediately after nouns when they identify or define the noun. This use is similar to defining relative clauses and they are often called reduced relatives:

We had to pay for the rooms used. (or the rooms we used)

Some of these are rarely used before the noun:

My watch was among the things taken.

The list of such nouns: applying, caused, found, included, provided.

That and those can be used as pronouns before a participle adjective:

The flour is of a higher quality than that produced by other varieties of wheat.
The touchscreens perform less well than those manufactured elsewhere.
Here is some advice for those preparing to go on holiday.

Unit 71. Adjectives and adverbs.¶

There are adjectives ending with -ly: cowardly, elderly, friendly, kindly, lively, lonely, lovely. We do not add -ly to it to make an adverb, instead we can use a prepositional phrase with fashion, manner, or way:

He smiled at me in a friendly way.
She waved her hands around in a lively fashion.

There are adverbs NOT ending with -ly: moreover, some of them have different meanings with and without -ly:

She gave her time free for no money. She gave her time freely willingly.
I arrived late for the concert not on time. I have not seen Amy lately recently.
He wandered deep a long way into the forest and got lost. He felt deeply very hurt by her criticisms.
You do no have to change trains. You can go direct (without stopping).
I will be with you directly (very soon).
It sounded awful - one of the choir members was singing flat.
This time I flatly (definitely, completely) refused to lend him any money.
Hi kicked the ball high over the goal.
Everyone thinks highly (very good) of her teaching.
He has just arrived.
You can be justly (rightly) proud of your musical achievements.
Which of these cheeses do you like most?
Her novels are now mostly (most of them) out of print.
They cut short (went home early) their holiday when Lina fell ill.
The speaker will be arriving shortly (soon).
The door was wide open so I just went straight in.
You won’t have any problems getting the book. It is widely (in many places) available.

Unit 72. Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative forms¶

When most + adj / adverb is used without the, most means something like very:

I checked the form most carefully very carefully but did not notice the mistake.

Unit 73. Comparative phrases and clauses¶

If we put a singular countable noun between an adjective and the second as we use a/an in front of the noun:

Despite his disability, he tried to lead as normal a life as possible.

The negative form of sentences like this can use either not as or sometimes not such:

It is not as quiet a place (not such a quiet place) as it used to be.

We can use so, too and how followed by an adjective in a similar way:

It is not quite so straightforward a problem as it might at first seem.
Conspiracy is perhaps too strong a word.
How big a piece do you want?

In rather formal English we can use too + adjective + a/an + noun:

I hope you have not had too tiring a day.

We can use go so / as far as + to-inf to talk about actions that are surprising or extreme:

One furious woman went (so / as far as) to throw tomatoes at the minister.

Unit 80. Giving reasons: as, because, for and with.¶

Unit 82. Contrasts: although, though, even though, if, while, whilst whereas¶

We can give special emphasis to an adjective by putting it before though in the pattern adjective + though + noun / pronoun + verb (usually a linking verb such as appear, be, become, feel, look, seem, sound, prove, etc). As (but not although) can be used instead of though:

Hot though (or as) the night air was, they slept soundly.
Although / Though the night air was hot, they slept soundly.

We can use while or whereas (or less often whilst) to say that something contrasts with something in the main clause. The while/whereas clause may come before or after the main clause:

Juan gets lots of homework from school, while / whereas Mia gets very little.
While / Whereas I always felt I would pass the exam, I never thought I would get an A grade.

Unit 83 & Unit 84. If¶

We can talk about possible future events with a present perfect verb in the if-clause and a future form (will, present continuous, or be going to) in the main clause. Sometimes present perfect or present simple can be used with a similar meaning:

I will lend you War and Peace if I have finished it before you go on holiday.
If you have not paid the bill by Friday, we are taking the carpets back.

However, to focus on the future consequences of a past event, we use the present perfect:

If I have failed my exam again, I am giving up the course. suggests I have already taken the exam; I do not know the result
If I fail my exam again, I am giving up the course. I may or may not have taken the exam

We do not usually use if … will in conditional clauses. However, we can use if … will:

when we talk about a result of something in the main clause:
- Open a windows if it will help you to sleep Helping you to sleep is the result of opening the window
- I will be angry if it turns out that you are wrong.
in requests or with the meaning if you are willing to (or if … would to be more polite):
- If you will / would take your seats, ladies and gentlemen, we can begin the meeting.
in real conditionals when we want to show that we disapprove of something. In this case, will is stressed in speech:
- I am tired. Well, if you will go to bed so late, I am not surprised.
we can use if … won’t when we talk about a refusal to do something:
- There is no point in trying to teach the class if they won’t pay attention.

Unit 83. If I were you …; imagine he were to win¶

In unreal conditional sentences we use were after any subject in the if-clause, including singular first and third person subjects (past subjunctive):

If your mother were here, I am sure she would not let you eat all those chocolates.

Were is used in this way in other patterns when we talk about imaginary situations:

when we use were + subject + to-inf or were + subject as a more formal alternative to if + subj + were:
- Were the elections to be held today, the Liberals would win easily.
- Were I not in my seventies and rather unfit, I might consider taking up squash.
after wish:
- I enjoy my job enormously, but I wish it were closer to home.
- Of course I am pleased that Jan has been given the award. I only wish he were not so boastful about it.
after if only when we express our regret that a situation is not different:
- If your job is so bad, why do not you leave? If only it were that simple.
- I would really like to do accounting. If only I were not so poor at maths.
after would rather and would sooner when we talk about preferences:
- I feel embarrassed about what happened and would rather the event were forgotten.
- I have arranged a meeting for the end of July. I would sooner it were earlier, if possible.
in sentences or clauses beginning with suppose, supposing and imagine:
- Suppose I were to lower the price by $100. Would you consider buying the car them?
- I know it looks rather dirty now, but imagine the house were to be repainted. It would look a lot more attractive.
in comparisons we can use were after as if and as though and even if:
- I remember stepping off the boat in New York as if it were yesterday.
- Despite losing the election, she continues to act as though she were prime minister.
- It is too late to start the work this year even if it were possible to find the money for it.

Unit 90. Prepositions of time¶

We use until to say that something continued or will continue to a particular time, and by to say that something happened or will happen either before a particular time or at that time at the latest:

We have to be at home until 2:30 We must not leave home before 2:30.
We have to be at home by 2:30 We must arrive home either before or at 2:30.

Unit 91. Talking about exception¶

We use except, not except for, with to-inf and that-clauses:

I rarely need to go into the city centre except to do some shopping.
They look just like the real thing, except that they are made of plastic.

We usually use except before prepositions, bare-inf and that-clauses including those where the word that is left out:

There is likely to be rain everywhere today except in Wales.
There is nothing more the doctor can do except keep an eye on him.