Other

Pronunciation

British vs american accents.

Silent letters

[1], [2]

• iron
• sword
• receipt
• subtle
• bomb [bɔm]
• climb [klaɪm]
• comb [kəum]
• dumb [dʌm]
• jamb [ʤæm]
• lamb [læm]
• plumb [plʌm]
• tomb [tuːm]
• womb [wuːm]
• crumb [krʌm]
• limb [lɪm]
• numb [nʌm]
• thumb [θʌm]

Uncountable nouns — [1]

Almost all uncountable nouns have singular form:

• advice, news, money and many more…

These nouns are not used with a/an or numbers and are not used in the plural:

• Here is the latest news.
• Money isn’t everything.

But there are also uncountable nouns which are usually found only in the plural:

• stairs, clothes, glasses, toiletries, outskirts, remains, shorts, pants, pyjamas, binoculars, scissors, groceries, goods, customs, thanks, regards, police

Examples:

• The police are searching for a white man in his twenties.
• All my clothes are packed and I’m ready for my trip.

I wish I were, If I was / If I were — [1]

If I was/if he was/if she was — these forms are called for when the statement refers to a state of being that existed, or could have existed in actual time:

• If he was ill, no wonder he left the oysters untouched.
• If I was unkind to you in those days, please forgive me.
• If she was lost in the woods, no one can blame her for being late.

Sometimes the speaker must decide according to intended meaning:

• If she were sensible, she’d order a background check on him. (I know her and she’s not sensible)
• If she was sensible, she’d order a background check on him. (I don’t know if she’s sensible or not. She may be)

Regrets: Use if only + would or wish + would to show we are annoyed by something now:

• If only you would be more sensible.
• I wish you would be quiet.

“Would” in the past — [1]

Would = used to. But would is used only for actions, not states.

• When I was on the school soccer team, I would score at least one goal per game.

The Subjunctive — [1]

• It is important that he comes come on time. Not: “he comes”.
• I propose that we do not go there. Not: “we do not go”.

Other verbs are: advice, ask, command, demand, desire, insist, propose, recommend, request, suggest, urge.

Passive verbs with ‘that’ clauses — “It is thought that…” — [1]

• It was claimed by Copernicus that we lived in a heliocentric universe.
• It is thought that Michael Jordan was the best basketball player.
• It is theorised that aliens built the pyramids.

Allege, assume, believe, claim, fear, feel, hold, postulate, predict, say, theorise, think.

… and without that clause:

• She was thought to be the best swimmer in the city.
• Hi is known to have been present during the crimes.

When a that-clause begins that there…, we can make a corresponding passive form there passive verb to be / to have been:

• It is thought that there are too many obstacles to peace.
• There are thought to be too many obstacles to peace.

Passive Voice (with get) — [1]

get is often used instead of be in the passive voice in informal spoken English to refer to an action that happens by accident or unexpectedly:

• They will get married tomorrow. (They changed from single to married)
• Jerry got fired because he was always late for work.

get expresses action and change and is only used with action verbs, not state verbs:

• Jerry got fired because he was always late for work. (fire is an action verb)
• Nothing is known about the thief (Wrong: Nothing gets known about the thief know is a state verb)

As get in the passive voice expresses action, it makes it possible to differentiate between an action and a state if it is not otherwise clear:

• The living room window was broken. (state or action)
• The living room window got broken. (action)

Also see “Grammar: Causative”.

Idiomatic expressions with the get passive:

• get dressed
• get washed
• get engaged
• get married
• get divorced
• get lost
• get mixed up
• get started

Prepositions in the passive voice:

• The doctor was sent for.
• The film was much spoken about.
• The train is acted upon by several forces.
• These data are often referred to.

Present perfect vs Past Simple

Several complicated examples:

• I have not seen you for a long time. Where have you been?
• Dear Mum and Dad, Sorry I have not written in a while, but things are crazy here. I can’t believe it was six month ago that I left and that we have not seen each other for that long.

Present Simple vs Present Continuous for habits

In general, Present Continuous is used when something:

1. is happening now
2. differs from what is expected or usual
   • especially if it is disliked by the speaker or evokes ambivalent feelings.

However, both Present Simple as well as Present Continuous are also used to describe habits. It looks like the difference can be described wit the aforementioned criterion: something differs from what is expected or is usual. It must be different across at least one dimension: time, population, space and so on…:

• At the first signs of trouble, animals always move to higher ground. All animals do it. They do it all the time. No blips, no unusual activity => Present Simple.
• The boss is always telling us to work hard, but she does nothing. Only that particular boss (individual) is saying it. There is a blip in population dimension => Present Continuous. Moreover, with all likelihood it annoys the speaker.
• People in the book business are always saying how difficult it is to think of a great title. Only people in the book business are saying it. There is a blip in population dimension => Present Continuous.
• I drink coffee every morning. No blips, it happens all the time. Permanent habit.
• I am drinking too much coffee these days because I’m so busy at work. There is a blip in the time dimension. I have started to drink more coffee recently. It is a new habit.
• Julie lives in London. Permanent situation. No blips in time => Present Simple.
• Julie is living in Paris for a few months (usually she lives in London). There is a blip in time => Present Continuous.

to / in order to / so as to — [1], [2], [3]

We use to to say why we do something:

• I’m going to Ireland to visit my family.

We can also use in order to or so as to. in order to and so as to are more common before stative verbs like: be, have, know, appear, seem, understand, etc:

• She left work early in order to be at home with the children.
• I’m going to Ireland in order to visit my family.
• I went to the post office so as to buy some stamps.

Before a negative infinitive, we normally use so as or in order:

• I am leaving now so as not to be late. (not: I am leaving now not to be late)

How to use so & so that — [1]

• Bill worked hard, so he was promoted.
• Bill worked hard so that he would be promoted.
• Bill worked so hard that he had to be promoted.
• Jill is smart, so all the boys like her.
• Jill studies regularly so that she can beat the boys.
• Jill is so smart that all the boys are afraid of her.

That & Which — [1]

In defining relative clauses that and which are interchangeable. Whereas, you must use which in non-defining ones.

• The movie that/which we saw last weekend was really good.
• Harry Potter, which I finished last week, was an excellent book.
• Toronto, which is heavily populated, is a multicultural city.

Comparing with like & as — [1]

Like + noun, As + clause:

• He looks like a Martian.
• He speaks like a preacher.
• He speaks as a preaches does.
• She treats me like a dog.
• A: “I Like it”. B: “As do I”. or B: “So do I”.
• She is shopping as if there were no tomorrow.

Do not mix up with:

• As your boss, I forbid you from using FB at work.

Adjective Clauses + Quantifiers — [1]

Such clauses are always non-defining ones, and therefore should be in commas.

• Chris has two sisters. Both of them smoke.
• Chris has two sisters, both of whom smoke.
• Nick has two phones. One of them is broken.
• Nick has two phones, one of which is broken.
• Tom is a writer. All of his books are popular.
• Tom is a writer, all of whose books are popular.

didn’t need to ask or needn’t have asked

• We did not need to ask for directions. We had a map.
• We need not have asked for direction. We asked for directions, but it was unnecessary as we found a map, or directions were misleading.

whether vs if — [1]

whether is always about two (often opposite) choices / options. if is not limited to two.

They can mean the same thing:

• Do you know if/whether Dan is coming?
• I do not know if/whether the exam is on Friday or Saturday.

But they can also mean different things:

• Let me know if you are coming. (if you are coming (and only if) then let me know about it).
• Let me know whether you are coming (or not). (if you are coming - let me know. If are not coming - let me know as well).

In the latter example whether has meaning of “regardless”. More examples of this meaning:

• I will come over if you want me to. (If you want, I will come. If you do not want, I will not come.)
• I will come over whether you like it or not. (If you like it, I will come. If you do not like it, I will come.)

Had better — [1]

todo

Conditional clauses

But for, if it were not for, were it not for, if it had not been for, had it not been for:

• But for hist illness he would (could, might) help us now.
• But for his illness he would (could, might) have helped us yesterday.
• If it were not for his sense of humour, his life would be awful.
• Were it not for his sense of humour , his life would be awful.
• But for his illness he would have come yesterday.
• If it had not been for his illness he would have come yesterday.
• Had it not been for his illness he would have come yesterday.

Murphy Unit 83. if:

We use if it were not for + noun phrase to say that one situation is dependent on another situation or on a person. When we talk about the past we can also use if it had not been for + noun phrase:

• If it were not for Nina, the conference would not be going ahead.
• If it had not been for Dad, I would not have gone to college.

In formal language we can also use were it not for… and had it not been for…:

• Were it not for Nina …
• Had it not been for Dad …

We can use but for + noun with a similar meaning, particularly in formal contexts:

• The village school would have been closed years ago but for the determination of teachers and parents to keep it open.

Future

• Should he be here tomorrow, he will help us.
• Should he see us, he would help us.
• If he should come, I would speak to him.
• Should he come, I would speak to him.
• If he were to come, I would speak to him.
• Were he to come, I would speak to him.
• If he should come, I shall speak to him.
• If he should come, ask him to wait.
• Should the speed drop, there will be a rapid increase in torque.

Emphasis

it is … that …:

• It is this device that is used in the tests.
• It is due to the inadequate equipment - that they failed to complete the experiment.
• It was Newton who discovered this law.

it was not until … that …:

• It was not until 1936 that physicists constructed a theory accounting for the structure of the nucleus.
• It was not until Roentgen discovered X-rays that scientists began to take interest in this subject.

would rather, would sooner, would just as soon — [1]

We use would rather or ’d rather to talk about preferring one thing to another. Would rather has two different constructions:

Same subject

Future and present situations:

• We’d rather go on Monday.
• More than half the people questioned would rather have a shorter summer break and more holidays at other times.
• I’d rather not fly. I hate planes.

Past situations: we use would rather + have + V3 form:

• She would rather have spent the money on a holiday. (The money wasn’t spent on a holiday.)
• I’d rather have seen it at the cinema than on DVD. (I saw the film on DVD.)

Different subjects

Future and present situations: we often use the past simple:

• I would rather they did something about it instead of just talking about it.
• Would you rather I wasn’t honest with you?

Past situations: we use the past perfect:

• I’d rather you hadn’t rung me at work.

Much rather

We can use much with would rather to make the preference stronger. In speaking, we stress much:

• I’d much rather make a phone call than send an email.
• She’d much rather they didn’t know about what had happened.

Would sooner, would just as soon

We use the phrases would sooner and would just as soon as well. They mean approximately the same as would rather:

• I don’t really want to go back to France again this year. I’d sooner go to Spain.
• Thanks for the invitation, but, if you don’t mind, we’d just as soon stay at home and watch it all on TV.

Clauses of purpose

so that, in order, that, lest.

• Put down my address so that you should (may) write me a letter.
• He put down my address so that he might write me a letter.
• He put down my address lest he should forget it.

Noun Clause

• Paul is not what is generally considered handsome.
• I am unsure if he is coming.
• It is more a question of whom she said it to than why she said it.
• That she might be right is what frightens me.
• How you go about doing your work should not affect when you get it done.

Conjunctions: that, which, who, whom, whose, what, if, whether, when, where, how, why, whoever, whenever, whatever, whichever.

The conjunctions in bold could be subjects.

Cleft sentences & clauses

Examples:

• It is Mary that John loves.
• What happened was (that) he dropped the vase.
• It was Karin who left her bah on the train.
• It was her bag that what Karin left on the train.

First part of the sentence

1. The verb must agree with the subject of the cleft-clause (it or what) no matter what you are talking about (object is); and
2. the subject is it or what even if you are talking about people:

• Focusing with it:
  • It this is Mary that John loves.
  • It was a colleague of Anne who eventually put the pieces together.
  • It was were my parents I had to thank for this.
  • It is those are the elections that have has given the people the opportunity to…
  • Lea bought the car from Olav. No, it was Olav that bought the car from Lea.
  • I do not mind her criticising me, but it is how she does it that I object to.
  • It was to show how much I cared for her that I bought her the necklace.
• Focusing with what:
  • What is are really annoying are the arguments.

In other words, it is always is or was, not were/are.

Second part of the sentence

Continue the sentence with that or who:

• It was only when he failed to arrive at work that when the alarm was raised.
• It was only yesterday that when I discovered the documents were missing.
• It was in Paris that where they first met.
• It is Mary that whom John loves.
• It was her bag that which/what Karin left on the train.
• It was heavy snow that what caused disruption to the airport.
• It is because you have such a good sense of humour that why I enjoy your company.
• It was Karin who left her bag on the train.

… or without anything, in which case the following verb must agree with what you are talking about (plural things or singular things: What is needed are resources):

• It was my parents I had to thank for this.
• What is really annoying are the arguments.
• What is needed are additional resources.
• What happened was that he dropped the vase.
• What happened was that hundreds of students marched to protest against the new laws.
• What caused disruption to the airport was the heavy snow.

From Murphy Unit 98

To focus attention on an action performed by someone, we use a sentence with what + subj + do + be + to-inf clause (we cannot use an it-clause to do this):

• Luis lost his job and was short of money, so what he did was to sell his flat and move in with his brother.
• The reason hundreds of students marched through the city centre was to protest against the new laws.
• What I want to do is persuade them to come with us.
• What Jane did was invest well.
• What elections have done is give this people the opportunity to decide…

The aforementioned pattern is only usually used with what-clauses. Instead of placing other wh-clauses beginning how, when, where, who, why at the beginning of the sentence we prefer to use a noun which has a meaning related to the wh-word (e.g. reason rather than why; place rather than where) followed by a that- or wh-clause:

• The only reason (why/that) I left the party early was that I was feeling unwell.
• The place (where/that) you should play football is the playground, not the classroom.
• Somebody (who/that) I enjoy reading is Peter Carey.
• The time (when/that) I work best is early morning.

Concession Clauses

• Difficult though it may be for students, in the future many school and university subjects are likely …
• Whilst people continue to use English to communicate on the Internet, the language itself will …
• I really want the car, however much it costs.
• However you look at it, technology is changing education.
• Much as we appreciate your efforts, sadly we won’t be able to use the report.
• Hard as we tried, we failed to get hold of anybody.
• Difficult though it was, we eventually secured the premises.

…and other starting with despite, in spite of, whichever, though, although, while.

Participle Clauses — [1]

We can use participle clauses after a noun in the same way as relative clauses. This gives more information about the noun.

A present participle (Ving)…

…can be used in the same way as an active relative clause:

• The man driving the car is a friend of mine. (The man who is driving the car is a friend of mine).
• Lorries coming over the bridge have to be careful of the wind. (Lorries that come over the bridge have to be careful of the wind).
• Who was the girl wearing the red dress? (Who was the girl who was wearing the red dress?).
• Students handing in their essays late will lose ten marks. (Students who hand in their essays late will lose ten marks).

(gerund-participial clause?) Being + V3(past participle)…

…can be used in the same way as a continuous passive relative clause:

• The poem being read by the actor was written by my brother. (The poem that is being read by the actor was written by my brother).
• The strawberries being eaten at the wedding were grown in Scotland. (The strawberries that are being eaten at the wedding ).

A past participle (V3)…

…can be used in the same way as a simple passive relative clause:

• We read the email sent by the manager. (We read the email that had been sent by the manager).
• This vase, made in China in the 14th century, is very valuable. (This vase, which was made in China in the 14th century, is very valuable).
• She only eats cakes made by her mother. (She only eats cakes that are made by her mother).

Causative — [1], [2], [3], [4], [5].

We use a causative verb when we want to talk about something that someone else did for us or for another person. It means that the subject caused the action to happen, but didn’t do it themselves. Maybe they paid, or asked, or persuaded the other person to do it.

Active Causative

Subject (I/you/…) + CV (have, make, let, get to) + agent + verb.

Examples:

• She lets me borrow her book.
• My mother made me do my homework.
• I will have someone cut my hair.
• My English teacher has me do the homework in a week.
• My friends get me to take the test.

Differences between CVs (causative verbs) are:

• Let is used when we allow/give permissions someone to do something.
• Make is used when we want to force someone to do something.
• Have is used when we want to give someone the responsibility to do something. When you commision/pay somebody.
• Get is used when we want to convince/persuade to do something or to trick someone into doing something.

Passive Causative

have & get verbs:

Subject + CV (have/get) + object + V3

• My hair is too long. You should get it cut.
• Yesterday my car broke down. I had it fixed by a mechanic.
• My teeth hurt! “You should have them looked at.

If instead of object you want to use a person, construction will look like:

• have + person + infinitive:
  • I had the electrician look at my broken light.
  • The doctor will have the nurse call the patients.
  • The teacher had the students write the answers on the whiteboard.
• get + person + to + infinitive:
  • She gets her son to do his homework by promising him ice cream when he’s finished.
  • I got the cleaner to clean under the cupboards.

make verb

Subject + was/were + made + to + V1

• I was made to cry a lot by the film. (The film made me cry a lot.)
• Tom was made to laugh a lot by my son. (My son made Tom laugh a lot.)
• The soldiers were made to wait in the garden.
• A professional player would be made to shudder by these odds. (These odds would make a professional player shudder.)

Some verbs (that are followed by object + bare-inf in the active) are followed by a to-inf in the passive (like make): feel, hear, help, observe, see.

passive causative + gerund — [1]

Situation: I enjoy talking during movie.

Active:

• When I talk, my friend makes me shut up.
• I am accustomed to talking.

Passive:

• I am made to shut up.
• I am not accustomed to being made to shut up.

Inversions — [1], [2], [3], Murphy Unit 99.

After negative adverb (phrase) at the beginning of the sentence.

• Hardly had I got into bed when the telephone rang.
• Never had she seen such a beautiful sight before.
• Never before did they use an alternative method.
• Seldom do we see such an amazing display of dance.
• Rarely will you hear such beautiful music.
• Only then did I understand why the tragedy had happened.
• Only now would she…
• At first there was silence. Then came a voice that I knew. (Unit 76)
• Not only does he love chocolate and sweets but he also smokes.
• No sooner had we arrived home than the police rang the doorbell.
• Scarcely had I got off the bus when it crashed into the back of a car.
• Only later did she really think about the situation.
• Nowhere have I ever had such bad service.
• Little did he know!
• Only in this way could John earn enough money to survive.
• In no way do I agree with what you’re saying.
• On no account should you do anything without asking me first.
• Under no circumstances can we accept credit cards.
• At no time did she say she would come.

We also put the verb before the subject when we use adverbs expressing direction of movement, such as along, away, back, down, in, off, out, up with verbs such as come, fly, go. This pattern is found particularly in narrative, to mark a change in events:

• The door opened and in came the doctor.
• As soon as I let ho of the string, up went the balloon, high into the sky.

In the following expressions, the inversion comes in the second part of the sentence:

• Not until I saw John with my own eyes did I really believe he was safe.
• Not since Lucy left college had she had such a wonderful time.
• Only after I’d seen her flat did I understand why she wanted to live there.
• Only when we’d all arrived home did I feel calm.
• Only by working extremely hard could we afford to eat.

After adverbial expression of place at the beginning on the sentence

• On the table was all the money we had lost. (All the money we had lost was on the table.)
• Round the corner came the knights. (The knights came round the corner.)
• On the doorstep was a bunch of flowers.

After nor/neither

• Carbon dioxide does not burn nor does it support combustion.
• The driver in front did not notice the sign. Neither did I.

After so

• He knows three foreign languages, and so does his sister.
• He was late so was his friend.

Instead of if in conditionals with had, were and should

• Had I been there, this problem wouldn’t have happened. (If I had been there, this problem wouldn’t have happened.)
• Had we arrived sooner, we could have prevented this tragedy! (If we had arrived sooner, we could have prevented this tragedy!)
• Should you need any help, do not hesitate to call. (If you need any help, do not hesitate to call.)
• Had the wheel not been invented, we would not have had cars. (Note where first “not” is placed. “Had not the wheel not been invented…”).

After so + adjective … that … and such + be … that

• So beautiful was the girl that nobody could talk of anything else. (The girl was so beautiful that nobody could talk of anything else.)
• So delicious was the food that we ate every last bite. (The food was so delicious that we ate every last bite.)
• Such is the popularity of the play that the theatre is likely to be full every night.

After exclamations with ‘here’ and ‘there’

• Here comes the winner!
• There goes all our money!

In comparisons

We commonly use inversion after as and that in comparisons:

• John speaks Chinese, as does Lucy.
• More important than love is money. (Money is more important than love.)
• Paper was invented in China, as was the process of printing.
• Most young people did not vote in the election, as was the case in 2010.
• I believed, as did my colleagues, that the plan would work.
• Researcher shows that parents watch more television than do their children.

Note that we do not invert subject and verb after as or than when the subject is a pronoun:

• We now know a lot more about the universe than we did ten years ago.

Other 1

• Man, is it cold out!
• Man, am I hungry!

Be careful!

• In no clothes does Mary look good (Negative inversion present. It doesn’t matter what Mary wears, she does NOT look good.)
• In no clothes, Mary looks good (Negative inversion absent, When Mary is nude, she looks good.)
• With no job is Fred happy (Negative inversion present. It doesn’t matter which job Fred has, he is NOT happy.)
• With no job, Fred is happy (Negative inversion absent. When Fred is unemployed, he is happy.)

Other 2

• Included in this section is a description of a typical system.
• Acting upon a body are few forces which cannot be neglected.
• Shown in fig. 5 is the equipment …
• Connected with this phenomenon are also some other changes.
• Important as this work is, it does not cover the problem on the whole.
• Possible as (though) it may be to construct a chart …

When present is not present, past is not past, future is not future

The Present

The Present…	Perfect	Simple	Continuous
Used for:	future: Unit 3	future: timetables, 1st conditional	future: scheduled and arranged plans

The Future

The Present…	Simple	Continuous	Perfect	Perfect Continuous
Used for:	present: see Unit 16	present: imagining what is happening around now (see Unit 11)	present: imagining what is happening around now (see Unit 11, Unit 83.)	present: imagining what is happening around now (see Unit 11)
			past: see Unit 16	past: what we think was happening at a point in the past (see Unit 11)

Past

• may/might + have V3 is used for future (see Unit 17)

Other

There are adverbs not ending with -ly, adjectives ending with -ly: see Unit 71. Adjectives and adverbs.

Most without the: see Unit 71. Adjectives and adverbs & Unit 72. Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative forms.

When an article (for noun) must NOT be placed before its adjectives (a quiet place -> quiet a place): see Unit 73. Comparative phrases and clauses.

will in if-clause: see Unit 84.

were instead of was: see Unit 85.

When to between two verbs is not needed (subjunctive?)

Words like suggest/recommend:

• I suggested (that) she wait (waits, waited) a few weeks.
• I suggest you call him first.
• They directed that the building be pulled down.

Cleft sentences & clauses (see above):

• What I want to do is persuade them to come with us.
• What Jane did was invest well.

7 Classes of Noun/Verb Agreement

Indefinite Pronouns & either/or and neither/nor

• Someone has left
• Everybody is entitled
• Each boy is responsible

For some of / none of / all of / neither…nor it depends on what goes after them — what is closer to the verb — plural or singular:

• All of the soup is gone. (Soup is a single entity).
• Some of the comments are favorable. The comments are counted as separate entities
• None of the jewels are missing.
• None of the jewelry is missing.
• Neither you nor I am.
• Neither the students nor the teacher remembers hearing anything.
• Either a melon or oranges are on the menu today.

Positive and Negative Subjects in Combination

A subject consisting of positive and negative sentiments that differ in singular and plural form should be followed by a verb that corresponds with the positive element:

• The delivery of the speech, not its contents, is the issue.

Conjunctive Phrases

The doe along with its fawns is resting in the meadow.

Inversion Expletives

As with there are …, in sentences beginning with such expletives as here and there, the actual subject, which follows the verb, determines the verb form:

• There is a word for that.
• Here are several choices.

Beware of tricky nouns

Plural nouns that name single objects, such as scissors and pants, are matched with plural verbs unless the phrase pair of precedes the noun; in that case, pair is the subject:

• Scissors are dangerous. But: A pair of scissors is required for this activity.
• The police are investigating the case.

Some other nouns ending in s are also singular in meaning:

• The mumps is a disease you don’t hear much about anymore.
• The news was not very good.

And some nouns have the form for plural and singular forms:

• The only means of communication was sign language.
• The political motivations and desired ends are much different, but the means are precisely the same.